Putting the ‘Buddhist’ Back into Mindfulness:
A Research Round-Up
The past is history and no longer exists. The future never arrives. Life can only be experienced in the present moment. Mindfulness involves focussing awareness on the present moment and paying attention, in real-time terms, to psychological and sensory processes. Mindfulness derives from Buddhist practice where it is deemed to constitute a form of spiritual training. In Buddhism, mindfulness comprises one small part of the path to spiritual awakening.
As Buddhist teachers, we have practiced mindfulness for most of our adult lives. However, about four years ago, we decided to commence a programme of empirical research with the objective of helping to improve scientific understanding of mindfulness and related contemplative techniques. The decision to do this was influenced by our growing concern that the rate at which mindfulness is being assimilated by academia (and Western society more generally) means that some researchers, scholars, and Buddhist teachers have overlooked the need to (i) consolidate and replicate research findings, (ii) clarify whether mindfulness (i.e., as it is used in contemporary mindfulness-based interventions) continues to bear any resemblance to the Buddhist model of mindfulness, (iii) investigate potential harmful effects of mindfulness, (iv) control for a ‘popularity effect’ in mindfulness intervention studies, (v) formulate comprehensive training and supervision curricula – that are informed by the traditional meditation literature – for secular mindfulness instructors, and (vi) investigate the Buddhist position that mindfulness has limited utility when isolated from the supporting meditative and spiritual techniques that would traditionally accompany it.
Within the last four years, we have published (or submitted for publication) – mostly as first authors – over 80 academic papers specifically relating to mindfulness and related contemplative techniques (i.e., peer-reviewed papers, professional/practitioner journal papers, academic book chapters, and books [over 230 publications within the last 4 years if one counts peer-reviewed papers on subjects not directly related to mindfulness, conference papers, blog posts, etc.]). Today’s post provides a brief summary of findings from some of our key academic papers relating to mindfulness and outlines their implications for the field of mindfulness research and practice (see further reading list below for details of specific papers referred to in this post).
Second-Generation Mindfulness-Based Interventions
In order to address some of the aforementioned issues relating to mindfulness, an important part of our research has explored the applications of a newly-developed second generation of mindfulness-based intervention (SG-MBIs). SG-MBIs frame mindfulness as a spiritual or psycho-spiritual practice and employ a greater range of meditative techniques compared to first-generation mindfulness-based interventions (FG-MBIs). More specifically, a part of our empirical work has focussed on assessing the efficacy, versatility, and flexibility of an eight-week secular SG-MBI known as Meditation Awareness Training (MAT). MAT has been the subject of empirical investigation since 2010 and to our knowledge, it represents the first intervention meeting all the criteria of a SG-MBI to be formally evaluated in research settings.
Findings from our research show that SG-MBIs (and more specifically MAT) may have a role in the treatment of a range of health-related disorders including fibromyalgia syndrome, work addiction, sex addiction, problem gambling, schizophrenia, sleep disturbance, stress, anxiety, and depression. Our published research findings also indicate that MAT can lead to improvements in (for example) job performance, goal attainment, decision-making competency, positive affect, negative affect, dispositional mindfulness, civic engagement, non-attachment (to self and symptoms), and job satisfaction.
In addition to helping to prompt an international programme of empirical investigation into SG-MBIs (i.e., as a means of addressing some of the limitations of FG-MBIs), other specific examples of how our research has helped to advance scientific understanding are as follows:
- Providing theoretical and empirical support for a novel definition of mindfulness that acknowledges its spiritual properties and that is increasingly being utilised in the academic literature (we have defined mindfulness as the “process of engaging a full, direct, and active awareness of experienced phenomena that is (i) spiritual in aspect and (ii) maintained from one moment to the next”).
- Defining the key components of SG-MBIs as well as the factors that distinguish them from FG-MBIs.
- Delineating the key attributes of mindfulness from a Buddhist perspective and offering recommendations in terms of integrating them into contemporary secular mindfulness-based interventions.
- Explicating the relationship between mindfulness and emptiness, and demonstrating how the emptiness principle could challenge some central assumptions of Western psychological thought.
- Conceiving and providing preliminary empirical evidence for a new psychological theory (called Ontological Addiction Theory) that posits ‘addiction to self’ as a third category of addiction (i.e., in addition to chemical and behavioural addiction).
- Eliciting rich quantitative and qualitative data to feedback into, and refine the design of, the secular MAT intervention.
- Empirically demonstrating the role of self-attachment in the onset and maintenance of mental illness.
- Conducting the first ever empirical study to use mindfulness as a treatment for workaholism.
- Conducting the first ever controlled study to evaluate the effectiveness of any treatment for individuals suffering from workaholism.
- Conducting the first ever empirical study to use mindfulness as a treatment for sex-addiction.
- Conducting the first ever empirical study to use mindfulness as a treatment for co-occurring schizophrenia and problem gambling.
- Conducting the first ever qualitative study to evaluate the experiences of individuals suffering from fibromyalgia syndrome following participation in a mindfulness-based intervention.
- Eliciting rich quantitative and qualitative data to facilitate the design of suitable non-pharmacological interventions for treating behavioural addiction.
- Delineating how an in-depth understanding of a Buddhist model of suffering can inform the effective practice of mindfulness as well as its use in clinical settings.
Limitations
Findings from our research need to be considered in light of their limitations that are discussed in detail in the various papers referred to in this post (see further reading list below). However, a more general limitation of our research is that although SG-MBIs have been presented as a means of addressing some of the limitations of FG-MBIs, our research findings do not allow direct comparisons to be drawn as to the relative effectiveness of FG- versus SG-MBIs. Accurately drawing such conclusions would require the conducting of head-to-head comparison studies in which the FG- and SG-MBI protocols are delivered under identical research conditions (although it is acknowledged that effect size calculations as part of rigorously conducted meta-analytical studies could provide an approximation of relative effectiveness). Thus, our research could be criticised for relying too heavily on supposition as to the necessity for SG-MBIs.
Implications and Future Directions
Notwithstanding the lack of studies directly comparing FG-MBIs with SG-MBIs, SG-MBIs constitute an important development in mindfulness research and practice because, at the very least, they provide service-users—including those interested in (or belonging to) Eastern contemplative traditions—with an intervention that more closely follows a traditional (but secular) approach to mindfulness practice. Furthermore, it may be that FG-MBIs and SG-MBIs can co-exist or complement each other because they are based on different delineations of mindfulness and employ distinct treatment models.
Findings from our (and others’) research indicate that SG-MBIs may have applications for treating a diverse-range of health disorders (as well as applications in other applied settings such as the workplace). It appears that the more spiritual approach embodied by SG-MBIs plays an important role in terms of their therapeutic efficacy. This is significant because FG-MBIs have generally been reluctant to acknowledge any spiritual affiliation and have largely presented mindfulness as an exclusively psychological technique. There are, no doubt, important psychological and attentional aspects to mindfulness and it is correct to identify and evaluate these under research conditions. However, there can reach a point where the conceptual and empirical reductionism of mindfulness means that its use in Western research and applied settings fails to capture the essence of what mindfulness was traditionally intended to embody. Moving forward, a key challenge for the scientific community will be to embrace the need to undertake programmes of empirical investigation to explore the possibility that some of the most active ingredients of mindfulness operate on the metaphysical rather than purely the psychological or biological plane.
Ven Dr Edo Shonin and Ven William Van Gordon
Further Reading
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., Garcia-Campayo, J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2017). Can compassion cure health-related disorders? British Journal of General Practice, In Press.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon W. (2017). The Mindful Warrior: The Path to Wellbeing. Wisdom, and Awareness. [Trade book; In Press].
- Van Gordon, W. (2017). Exploring the Clinical Applications of Second-Generation Mindfulness-Based Interventions: A Mixed-Methods Investigation [PhD Thesis]. Nottingham: Nottingham Trent University. [In Press].
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Dunn, T., Garcia-Campayo, J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Meditation Awareness Training for the treatment of fibromyalgia: A randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Health Psychology, Advance Online Publication, doi:10.1111/bjhp.12224.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Buddhist emptiness theory: Implications for psychology. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. Advance Online Publication, doi: 1037/rel0000079.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Lomas, T., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Corporate use of mindfulness and authentic spiritual transmission: Competing or compatible ideals? Mindfulness and Compassion, 1, 75-83.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Meditation Awareness Training for the treatment of sex addiction: A case study. Journal of Behavioral Addiction, 5, 363-372.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2016). The mechanisms of mindfulness in the treatment of mental health and addiction. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 14, 844-849.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Meditation Awareness Training for individuals with fibromyalgia syndrome: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of participant’s experiences. Mindfulness, 7, 409-419.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Mindfulness and wellbeing: Towards a unified operational approach. In: I. Ivtzan, & T. Lomas (Eds). Mindfulness in Positive Psychology: The Science of Meditation and Wellbeing (pp. 280-292). Oxford: Routledge.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2016). Experiencing the universal breath: A guided meditation. Mindfulness, 7, 1243-1245.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Ontological addiction: Classification, etiology, and treatment. Mindfulness, 7, 660-671.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Are contemporary mindfulness-based interventions unethical? British Journal of General Practice, 66, 94-94.
- Griffiths, M. D., Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2016). Mindfulness as a treatment for gambling disorder. Journal of Gambling and Commercial Gaming Research, 1, 47-52. DOI 10.17536/jgcgr.2016.004.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2016). Thupten Jingpa on compassion and mindfulness. Mindfulness, 7, 279-283.
- Cavalli, G., Van Gordon, W., & Shonin, E. (2016) Imparare fin da piccoli la mindfulness. Educare03, 3, 6-8.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Griffiths, M. D. (2016). The four types of psychologist: Ineffective, satisfactory, gifted, and gone beyond. PsychCentral. Available at: http://pro.psychcentral.com/the-four-types-of-psychologist-ineffective-satisfactory-gifted-and-gone-beyond/0016491.html.
- Shonin, E. (2015). Integrating Buddhist Practices and Principles into Mental Health Settings: A Mixed Methods Investigation [PhD Thesis]. Nottingham: Nottingham Trent University.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Does mindfulness work? British Medical Journal, 351:h6919. DOI: 1136/bmj.h6919.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., & Griffiths, M. (2015). Towards a second-generation of mindfulness-based interventions. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 49, 591-591.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2015). Managers’ experiences of Meditation Awareness Training. Mindfulness, 4, 899-909.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Teaching ethics in mindfulness-based interventions. Mindfulness, 6, 1491-1493.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., & Griffiths, M.D. (2015). Mindfulness in mental health: A critical reflection. Journal of Psychology, Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Brain Stimulation, 1(1),
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Singh, N. N. (Eds). (2015). Buddhist Foundations of Mindfulness. New York: Springer.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Singh, N. N. (2015). Mindfulness and Buddhist Practice. In: E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & N. N. Singh (Eds). Buddhist Foundations of Mindfulness (pp. 1-6). New York: Springer.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Griffiths, M. D., & Singh, N. N. (2015). Mindfulness and the Four Noble Truths. In: E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & N. N. Singh (Eds). Buddhist Foundations of Mindfulness (pp. 9-27). New York: Springer.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., Singh, N. N., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Mindfulness of Emptiness and the Emptiness of Mindfulness. In: E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & N. N. Singh (Eds). Buddhist Foundations of Mindfulness (pp. 159-178). New York: Springer.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Griffiths, M. D., & Singh, N. N. (2015). There is only one mindfulness: Why science and Buddhism need to work together. Mindfulness, 6, 49-56.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2015). Mindfulness of ignorance. Mindfulness, 6, 1487-1490.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., Compare, A., Zangeneh, M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Buddhist-derived loving-kindness and compassion meditation for the treatment of psychopathology: A systematic review. Mindfulness, 6, 1161-1180.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2015). Practical recommendations for teaching mindfulness effectively. Mindfulness, 6, 952-955.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Are there risks associated with using mindfulness for the treatment of psychopathology? Clinical Practice, 11, 389-382.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2015). The lineage of mindfulness. Mindfulness, 6, 141-145.
- Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). For the mindful teaching of mindfulness. The Psychologist, 28, 514-515.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon W., & Griffiths, M. D. (Eds). (2015). Mindfulness and Buddhist-derived Approaches in Mental Health and Addictions. Gewerbestrasse (Switzerland): Springer.
- Langer, A. I., Carmona-Torres, J. A., Van Gordon, W., & Shonin, E. (2015). Mindfulness for the treatment of psychosis: State of the art and future developments. In: E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & M. D. Griffiths (Eds). Mindfulness and Buddhist-derived Approaches in Mental Health and Addiction (pp. 211-244). Gewerbestrasse (Switzerland): Springer.
- Shonin, E. (2015). This is not McMindfulness by any stretch of the imagination: Edo Shonin talks to Jon Kabat-Zinn. The Psychologist. Available at: https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/not-mcmindfulness-any-stretch-imagination
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Mindfulness and Buddhist-derived treatment techniques in mental health and addiction. In: E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & M. D. Griffiths (Eds). Mindfulness and Buddhist-derived Approaches in Mental Health and Addiction (pp. 1-8). Gewerbestrasse (Switzerland): Springer.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). The self and the non-self: Applications of Buddhist philosophy in psychotherapy. RaIIS-IT, 12, 10-11.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Mindfulness in psychology: A breath of fresh air? The Psychologist, 28, 28-31.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Do mindfulness-based therapies have a role in the treatment of psychosis? Australia and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 48, 124-127.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Sumich, A., Sundin, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Meditation Awareness Training (MAT) for psychological wellbeing in a sub-clinical sample of university students: A controlled pilot study. Mindfulness, 5,381-391.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., Dunn, T., Singh, N., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Meditation Awareness Training for work-related wellbeing and job performance: A randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 12, 806-823.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Practical tips for using mindfulness in general practice. British Journal of General Practice, 64, 368-369.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Zangeneh, M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Work-related mental health and job performance: Can mindfulness help? International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 12, 129-137.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Mindfulness and the social media. Journal of Mass Communication and Journalism, 2014, 4: 5, DOI: 10.4172/2165-7912.1000194.
- Compare, A., Zarbo, C., Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Marconi, C. (2014). Emotional regulation and depression: A potential mediator between heart and mind. Cardiovascular Psychiatry and Neurology, 2014, Article ID 324374, DOI 10.1155/2014/324374.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). The treatment of workaholism with Meditation Awareness Training: A Case Study. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 10, 193-195.
- Shonin, E. & Van Gordon, W. (2014). Using mindfulness and insight to transform loneliness. Mindfulness, 5, 771-773.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). The emerging role of Buddhism in clinical psychology: Toward effective integration. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 6, 123-137.
- Shonin, E. & Van Gordon, W. (2014). Mindfulness of death. Mindfulness, 5, 464-466.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Current trends in mindfulness and mental health. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 12, 113-115.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Meditation Awareness Training (MAT) for the treatment of co-occurring schizophrenia with pathological gambling: A case study. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 12, 181-196.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Mindfulness as a treatment for behavioral addiction. Journal of Addiction Research and Therapy, 5, e122. DOI: 10.4172/2155-6105.1000e122.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon W., & Griffiths M. D. (2014). Meditation Awareness Training (MAT) for improved psychological wellbeing: A qualitative examination of participant experiences. Journal of Religion and Health, 53, 849-863.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Skelton, K., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Working mindfully: Can mindfulness improve work-related wellbeing and work effectiveness? Counselling at Work (A Journal of the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy), Winter Issue, 14-19.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Just what the doctor ordered! Mindfulness meditation as medication. Awakenings Middle East, September/November, 10-13.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Changing Paradigms: Buddhist Insight in Western Psychological Treatments. PsyPAG, 92, 35-39.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2014). Dream or reality? Philosophy Now, 104, 54.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Practical tips for teaching mindfulness to school-aged children. Education and Health, 32, 30-33.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Loving-kindness and compassion meditation in psychotherapy. Thresholds: Quarterly Journal of the Association for Pastoral and Spiritual Care and Counselling (A Journal of the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy), Spring Issue, 9-12.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Mindfulness meditation in American correctional facilities: A ‘what-works’ approach to reducing reoffending. Corrections Today: Journal of the American Correctional Association, March/April, 48-51.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). The top ten mistakes made by Buddhist meditation practitioners. The Buddhist Voice, 1(5), 22-24.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Understanding and practicing mindfulness. RaISS-IT, 10, 14-16.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., Dunn, T., Singh, N. N., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Study summary – Meditation Awareness Training (MAT) for work-related wellbeing and job performance: A randomized controlled trial. In J. Näsström (Ed.), Focused, Calm and Effective: Effects of Mindfulness in the Workplace (pp.22-25). Stockholm: Potential Project Sverige AB. (ISBN 9781508855644).
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2013). Meditation as medication: Are attitudes changing? British Journal of General Practice, 63,
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2013). The consuming mind. Mindfulness, 5, 345-347.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2013). Mindfulness-based interventions: Towards mindful clinical integration. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 1-4. DOI:3389/fpsyg.2013.00194.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon W., Slade, K., & Griffiths, M. D. (2013). Mindfulness and other Buddhist-derived interventions in correctional settings: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18, 365-372.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2013). Buddhist philosophy for the treatment of problem gambling. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 2, 63-71.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2013). Searching for the present moment, Mindfulness, 5, 105-107.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2013). Meditation for the treatment of addictive behaviours: Sending out an SOS. Addiction Today, March, 18-19.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2013). Mindfulness-based therapy: A tool for Spiritual Growth? Thresholds: Quarterly Journal of the Association for Pastoral and Spiritual Care and Counselling (Journal of the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy), Summer Issue, 14-18.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W. & Griffiths, M. D. (2013). Mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of problem gambling. Journal of the National Council on Problem Gambling, 16, 17-18.
- Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2013). Meditation Awareness Training: Participant Training Guide – Revised. Nottingham, UK: Awake to Wisdom.
- Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2012). The health benefits of mindfulness-based interventions for children and adolescents. Education and Health, 30, 94-97.
- Lomas, T., Etcoff, N., Van Gordon, W., & Shonin, E. (2016). The aesthetics of living mindfully: Learning from Zen artistic principles. Manuscript Under Review.
- Garcia-Campayo, J., Demarzo, M., Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2016). Cultural influences on the teaching and practice of mindfulness and compassion: Is there a Latin health paradox in mindfulness? Manuscript Under Review.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Garcia-Campayo, J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Are the adverse effects associated with mindfulness? Manuscript Under Review.
- Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Dunn, T., Garcia-Campayo, J., Demarzo, M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Meditation Awareness Training for the treatment of workaholism: A non-randomised controlled trial. Manuscript Under Review.
- Navarro-Gil, M., Escolano-Marco, C., Minguez-Zafra, J., Shonin, E., & García-Campayo, J. (2016). Efficacy of neurofeedback on the increase of mindfulness levels in healthy subjects: a controlled trial. Manuscript Under Review.
- Montero-Marín, J., Navarro-Gil, M., Gasión, V., Puebla, M., Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & García-Campayo, J. (2016). Efficacy of ‘Attachment-Based Compassion Therapy’ and mindfulness-enriched ‘Amygdala and Insula Retraining’ in the treatment of patients with fibromyalgia: a three-arm randomized controlled trial with a 3-month follow-up. Manuscript Under Review.